The purpose of this paper is to guide Psychology Majors who are planning to apply to Graduate School. This paper is essentially a summary of Getting In published by the American Psychological Association (APA, 1993). Getting In provides a realistic picture of the difficulties in getting accepted to a graduate program, but you should not be discouraged from applying to Graduate School, provided you have the necessary qualifications. For example, the average applicant-to-opening ratios are 25-to-1 or higher, but you will increase your chances of being accepted to a program if you follow the steps outlined in this paper.

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Step 1: Is Graduate School Right For You? Step 2: Area Of Concentration And Type Of Degree Step 3: Assessing Your Qualifications And Improving Your Chances For Acceptance Step 4: Choosing Which Programs To Apply To Step 5: Applying To Graduate Programs Step 6: After You have Applied Step 7: Alternatives If You Are Not Accepted References

Step 1: Is Graduate School Right for You?

There are a number of reasons for pursuing an M.A. or Ph.D. degree in Psychology. You will need a Ph.D. degree to teach at the college level, lead major research in a university or business setting, or practice psychotherapy. You will need an M.A. degree for many jobs in government and industry, and a master's degree in psychology is often considered ideal.

Other common reasons for pursuing a graduate degree are a deep interest in psychology, an aspiration to make a contribution to the field, and a strong wish to improve the quality of life for individuals and society.

In addition to the reasons for pursuing an advanced degree, you should be aware that graduate work is difficult and very demanding. The average course load ranges from 9 to 14 credits per semester, and you are expected to do a great deal of reading and thinking on your own. You will also be required to spend a good deal of time in planning and conducting research. In general, the largest share of your life will be devoted to graduate work, and to your professional career as well.

It takes 2 to 4 years to obtain an M.A. degree, and 4 to 7 years to obtain a Ph.D. degree. Your chances for the successful completion of the degree requirements will depend on how hard- working, self-motivated, interested in the field, and how scientifically oriented you are.

Admission Criteria
A variety of criteria are used by graduate schools to evaluate applicants for both master's and doctoral programs in psychology:

1. Grade Point Average (GPA)
2. Graduate Record Exam Scores (GRE): Verbal, Quantitative, Analytical, and Subject Matter
3. Miller Analogies Test (MAT)
4. Personal Essays
5. Letters of Recommendation
6. Undergraduate Courses: Statistics, Laboratory Courses, History and Systems

The minimum GRE score required for a Ph.D. program is 550 in each of the subtests: Verbal, Quantitative, Analytical, and Psychology. However, not all programs use the Analytical Score and the Psychology Score in evaluating applicants. For an M.A. program the minimum GRE score is 500 in each of the subtests.

The above figures for GPA and GRE scores are averages, and many programs set higher minimums for these criteria. Graduate Programs may also use additional selection criteria besides the ones listed above, such as quality of course work, interviews, research experience, psychology-related work experience, clinically-related public service, and extracurricular activities.

Application Deadlines and Fees
Most graduate programs set deadlines for applications for the fall enrollment betweeen February 1 and March 1 of the same year. Some schools have deadlines in January, and others as late as April. In general, these deadlines are absolutely nonnegotiable, and partially completed applications will not be considered. The fee for each application filed is about $40, as of 1993. You will also have to pay a fee for transcripts and test scores. Some schools also invite finalists for an interview, and the expense is usually borne by the applicant.

Concluding Remarks
If you feel overwhelmed by the information in STEP 1, and doubtful about your chances to be accepted into some program, rest assured that you are not alone. You should look upon your doubts as challenges to seek further information, some of which will be provided in the remainder of this paper. To repeat, the purpose of this paper is to provide you with a realistic picture of the application process, and not to discourage you from applying to Graduate School.

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Step 2: Area of Concentration and Type of Degree

1. whether you see yourself primarily as a researcher, as a practitioner, or as some combination of both
2. what type of setting you want to work in
3. what kinds of activities you see yourself doing from day to day
4. which of the more than 100 areas of psychology you want to concentrate on
5. which degree you should earn to obtain employment in your chosen field
6. whether it is necessary to enroll in an accredited program
7. whether you will need licensure or certification

There are four major types of activities that psychologists engage in:
• Teaching
• Research
• Scholarly Writing
• Providing Psychological Services
The three training models differ in terms of the distribution of time and effort among these four major activities.


I. The Research Scientist Model
Research scientists are scholars who divide their time among conducting research, writing about their findings, and teaching. Research scientists are motivated to learn more about the mind and behavior through research, to contribute such knowledge to the solution of human problems, and to teach what they have learned.

Training in the research scientist model focuses on supplying students with the knowledge and tools necessary for scientific investigation. Typically, students are given rigorous training in research methods, and they are required to complete coursework in the core areas of psychology, such as perception, sensation, learning, memory, personality, motivation, quantitative, developmental, physiological, and social psychology. In addition to courses in the core areas, students are expected to take courses in their areas of concentration and to begin doing research in those areas as soon as possible.

According to a 1991 survey, 8% of new Ph.Ds in psychology were employed in careers focusing almost exclusively on research. About 31% of these researchers were employed in universities, and about 52% were employed in business and government settings (Kohout and Wicherski, 1993). Of course, among the new graduates, a much larger percentage than 8% were involved in research as part of their professional lives.


II. The Scientist-Practitioner Model
At the conference held in Boulder, Colorado in 1949, the scientist-practitioner model was endorsed for clinical psychologists. This model was designed to provide a grounding in research methods and a broad exposure to the core areas in psychology. The scientist-practitioner model expects students to learn both science and practice skills. The goals of training in the scientist-practitioner model are to:

1. Provide more practitioner-oriented coursework and experiences as compared to the research scientist model
2. Train practitioners to conduct and consume research of both an applied and experimental nature
3. Guide practitioners in applying the necessary skills to applied activities, such as assessment and treatment

Programs following this model require more coursework in applied and clinical subjects, and more experience in internships and practica in clinical and applied settings. Although the scientist-practitioner model is often used in clinical psychology, it is also prevalent in other areas, such as counseling, school, and industrial/organizational psychology.

Scientist-practitioner training is characterized by core courses in both basic and applied psychology, supervision during extensive clinical or applied experience, research consumption, and an emphasis on the application of the scientific skills that are fundamental to the practice of psychology. For example, in treating a client, the scientist-practitioner would use scientific skills such as generating hypotheses about the causes of the problem, operationalizing variables that are pertinent to treatment, using interventions that have a scientific basis, testing hypotheses, and empirically evaluating the results of interventions.


III. The Professional Model
The professional or practitioner model was designed to offer another choice for students who are only interested in clinical practice. There are several features that differentiate the professional model from the other two models. First, professional training is more strongly focused on clinical practice than are either of the other two models. Second, many professional programs grant a PsyD rather than a PhD or EdD degree. Third, some professional programs may allow students to complete an academic project instead of a traditional dissertation. Fourth, admission criteria for professional programs may place more emphasis on personal qualities and clinically related experience than do those of the other two models.

Some professional schools are university-based and some are freestanding. University-based schools are considered by some as the optimal setting for professional programs. Some of these programs are separate schools within a university, and university-based schools have the advantages of access to facilities such as libraries, counseling centers, and they have closer contact with other disciplines within the university. Some PsyD programs are based in university psychology departments which may also grant research-oriented PhDs.

Freestanding professional schools are usually private institutions that are autonomous from both psychology departments and universities, and they are controversial. In 1987, The National Conference on Graduate Education recommended that after 1995 all freestanding schools be university-affiliated to be accredited by the APA. Common criticisms of freestanding schools are as follows: Library facilities may be inadequate; programs may be too isolated from related disciplines; some rely too heavily on tuition for funding; in many, faculty members are practitioners and teach only part-time; and it is more difficult to assess the quality of freestanding schools than that of university-based schools. Of course, these criticisms may apply to only some freestanding schools.

The number of students opting for a PsyD degree through professional programs appear to be growing. According to a 1991 survey, 500 PsyD degrees were granted, which was about 15% of all psychology doctoral degrees granted that year. The employment rate for PsyD graduates is also encouraging - 77% of 1991 PsyD graduates in clinical psychology reported full-time employment as compared to 70% for PhD clinical graduates (Kohout and Wicherski, 1993).

The crucial consideration when choosing a degree is whether that degree will provide the credentials you will need for employment in your field. Once you narrow your focus to one or two areas that interest you, it will not be difficult to determine what kinds of training and which degree to seek.


The Doctoral Degree
The doctoral degree is considered by the APA as the basic credential for psychologists and the entry-level degree to the profession. Many jobs as well as licenses to practice require a doctoral degree. There are three basic options for the doctoral degree:

• Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
• Doctor of Psychology (PsyD)
• Doctor of Education (EdD)

The PhD degree is usually granted by university-based psychology departments that train in the research or scientist-practitioner models, although some professional schools also award the PhD degree.

The PsyD degree is usually granted by a university-based or freestanding professional school of psychology that trains with the professional model.

The EdD degree is granted by a university-based education department, as opposed to a psychology department, which usually trains in the research or scientist-practitioner models.


The Master's Degree
Although the doctorate is required to be called a psychologist, a number of stimulating jobs involving psychological expertise are open to graduates with a master's degree. There are four options for the Master's Degree:

• Master of Arts (MA)
• Master of Science (MS)
• Terminal Master's Degree
• Nonterminal Master's Degree

There is very little difference between an MA and an MS degree, and the acronym only reflects the department or school in which the program is housed. Like doctoral programs, the orientation of master's programs can be more or less practice or research based.

Terminal master's programs prepare you for a specific occupation that requires only a master's degree. The nonterminal master's degree is awarded to students as part of their doctoral degree program. If you have any intention of pursuing a doctoral degree after earning an MA, you may not want to apply to a program offering only a terminal master's degree.

There are disadvantages as well as advantages to choosing an MA degree over a doctoral degree. The following are some of the advantages. Admission requirements are less stringent for master's applicants than for doctoral applicants. It takes 2-4 years to complete an MA degree as compared to 4-7 years for a doctoral degree. Some master's programs allow part-time study (some PsyD programs also allow part-time study). Most important, a master's degree provides sufficient training and credentials for many areas of employment. There are many career opportunities for individuals with an MA degree, especially in nonclinical areas.

The MA degree has several disadvantages as well. For example, career options for someone with an MA degree are limited by state licensing and certification regulations. In the majority of states, individuals with an MA degree cannot obtain a license for independent practice.

While you are working on your MA degree, there are several things you can do to increase your chances as a doctoral applicant:

1. get as much research experience as possible
2. establish good relationships with professors
3. get a good foundation in core subjects
4. maintain good grades
5. obtain practica experiences in the areas of your interest

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Step 3: Assessing Your Qualifications and Improving Your Chances for Acceptance

Evaluation Criteria Used by Selection Committees

Objective Criteria
• GPA (overall GPA, psychology GPA, and last 2-years GPA)
• Standardized test scores (GRE-V, GRE-Q, GRE-Analytical, and GRE-psychology; MAT)
• Coursework (number of hours, subject area, and level)

Nonobjective Criteria
• Letters of recommendation
• Experience
  • Research experience
  • Field-related work experience
  • Clinically related public service
• Application essays
• Interview performance
• Extracurricular activities

Unspecified Criteria
• Resume
• Quality of application materials
• School and work-site attitudes and behavior
• Special projects and honors courses
• Diversity

Grade Point Average (GPA)
The average minimum overall GPA required by Ph.D. programs is 3.2, and for M.A. programs it is 3.0. Of course, different schools vary in the way they rate GPAs. Some programs will look more closely to the last two years' GPA, and still others will also look at the GPA in psychology courses. Thus, if you have a poor record in your first two years in college, many selection committees will still give you a favorable evaluation if you showed significant improvement in the latter part of your training. In any case, you need to consult individual programs in Graduate Study in Psychology to determine the required and preferred minimums, and to determine whether a program weighs more heavily the overall GPA, psychology GPA, or the last 2-years GPA.


Standardized Test Scores
Most graduate programs use scores on the general Graduate Record Exam (GRE) and Psychology GRE as admission criteria, and a small number also use scores from the Miller Analogies Test (MAT).

Regular test dates for the GREs are in October, December, February, April, and June, but by paying a higher fee you can take the computerize General GRE (but not the Psychology GRE) any week of the year. In Appendix A (p. 25) you will find information for applying to take the GREs and several references that will help you prepare for the GREs.

To take the Psychology GRE or the paper-and-pencil version of the General GRE, you must apply at least 5 weeks in advance of the testing date (4 weeks if you are willing to pay a late registration fee). If you do not meet these deadlines you should call (800) 967-1100 to arrange for computerized testing.

Test dates for the MAT vary, depending on the test site. In Appendix A (p. 25) you will find information for applying to take the MAT and several references that will help you prepare for the test.

You should actively study for these tests, and you should plan to take them several months before the application deadlines of graduate programs to allow for the possibility of retaking them.

What are these tests like? The General GRE consists of three components, each with a multiple-choice format. The Verbal Abilities component (GRE-V) contains analogy, antonym, sentence completion, and reading comprehension questions and exercises. Quantitative Abilities (GRE-Q) tests your ability to perform arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and quantitative comparisons and to interpret data. The GRE-V and GRE-Q are the two components most frequently used by selection committees. The Analytical Abilities component, which is less frequently used, contains analytical reasoning exercises and logic problems. Each component yields a maximum score of 800. The average minimum score required by doctoral programs is 550 for each component, and 1200 for the combined GRE-V + GRE-Q. The required average scores for master's programs are a bit lower.

The Psychology GRE consists of about 220 questions drawn from the following subject areas: experimental (e.g., learning, cognition, perception, sensation, ethology, and comparative and physiological psychology); social science (e.g., personality, social, clinical, developmental, and abnormal psychology); and general psychology (e.g., history and systems, applied psychology, tests and measurement, and statistics). The average minimum score required by doctoral programs is also 550 on the Psychology GRE. However, if your score is lower than 550, many schools will still accept your application if your other credentials are superior.

The MAT is a 50-minute, 100-items analogy completion test that is quite different from the GREs. Most schools do not require scores on the MAT, but Getting In (APA, 1993) estimates that you would need to score in the range 60-70 correct answers. In any case, you will need to consult Graduate Study in Psychology to determine which standardized test scores are required by the different programs.

Preparation for the GRE tests is highly recommended. You should spend 40 to 60 hours preparing for the test. In addition to the references in Appendix A (p. 25) you may choose to take the preparation courses offered by Kaplan's or the Princeton Review.

Timing and preparation for the Psychology GRE are somewhat different from the general tests. You should plan to take the Psychology GRE as late as possible and after you have completed most of your psychology courses. In general, you should take the Psychology GRE in October of your senior year. A good textbook in Introductory Psychology, and textbooks in your other courses, will give you the best overview and preparation for the Psychology GRE.


Coursework
In general, graduate programs are more interested in applicants who are generalists rather than specialists. Thus, taking a large number of undergraduate courses in psychology at the expense of other subjects is not considered desirable. A broad undergraduate education is the best possible preparation for pursuing a specialty in graduate school.

Graduate programs vary a great deal on the required number and type of undergraduate psychology courses taken by the applicant. You should consult Graduate Study in Psychology for the psychology course requirements of different programs. In general, you should have a broad background in undergraduate psychology, such as courses in the areas covered by the Psychology GRE. In addition, take several laboratory-based courses even if you are only planning to apply to professional programs.

Letters of Recommendation
You will need three letters of recommendation when applying to most graduate programs. Letters of recommendation are considered to be the most important nonobjective criterion, and sometimes they are given equal weight with GPA and test scores. The best source for recommendation would be your psychology professors who are familiar with your academic ability and are able to comment on your potential as a psychologist. It is crucial that at least one of your letters be written by someone who meets as many of the following criteria:
1. with whom you have studied or collaborated in research
2. from whom you have taken one or more upper-level courses
3. from whom you received an A
4. who knows you well academically, and perhaps personally
In order to make sure that your professors meet the above criteria, you should make an attempt to get to know your professors by visiting them during office hours to discuss issues, and even volunteer to help with their research.

Other sources for recommendation are professors in other disciplines, and professional psychologists or other mental health professionals.

Experience
Selection Committees value research experience and psychology- related work experience, whether you are an employee or volunteer.

The most common way to obtain research experience is to assist a psychology professor with his or her research. However, assisting professors in other disciplines (e.g., biology, computer science, sociology) is also viewed positively. Designing and conducting your own research through independent study is also considered research experience.

Field-related experience is held in high esteem by selection committees. For clinical and counseling programs it would be useful to work or volunteer at mental health settings under the supervision of a psychologist or other mental health professionals. For industrial/organizational programs, experience with personnel issues, training, and organizational change in business, government, or industry is highly valued. In general, you should tailor your field-related experiences to the type of program you want to attend.


Application Essays
Most programs will require you to write personal essays for inclusion with your application, and these essays are taken quite seriously in evalutating applicants. The three most typical themes targeted by these essays are your long-term career goals, your areas of interest in psychology, and your reasons for choosing a particular program.

Selection committees will be attending not only what you have to say about yourself, but also how you say it. These essays can reveal a great deal about yourself, and your values and priorities. Well-written, articulate essays can be very persuasive, and poorly thought-out and badly written essays can be very damaging. You should ask friends and colleagues, and professors to review your essays.


Interview Performance
Many programs request interviews with applicants before making final selections. If you are asked for an interview, chances are that you are among the final pool of applicants being seriously considered for admission. Consequently, your interview performance will be of great importance.

The interviewer will be interested foremost in assessing how well you seem to fit into the program. The best way to prepare for an interview is to thoroughly acquaint yourself with the program, e.g., its training model, areas of concentration, and philosophy. You should also be familiar with faculty members and their particular areas of interest. In other words, you want to be able to show how your interests and qualifications fit the program. If invited for an interview you should go, even though you will have to incur the expenses. Declining an interview will put you at a disadvantage compared to applicants who made good impressions on their interviews.


Extracurricular Activities
Extracurricular activities are not as important as other criteria but they may be valuable. Membership in organizations may be pertinent only if they are psychology-related. You may consider joining divisions of the American Psychological Association that offer student affiliate membership. You may also consider such organizations as the Psychology Club, Psi Chi or Psi Beta, the national honor societies for students in psychology.

Another unspecified criterion is the quality of your application materials, which includes neatness, readability, completeness, timeliness, accuracy, and so forth. You should type rather than write on the application forms, and be sure to proofread any materials you submit.

Concluding Remarks

In this section you have learned about the criteria used by Selection Committees to evaluate applicants: objective criteria, nonobjective criteria, and unspecified criteria. You should use this information to assess your qualifications for applying to graduate school. Furthermore, if you plan for graduate school early enough during your undergraduate studies, you may take steps to ensure that you meet the evaluation criteria used by graduate programs, and thus improve your chances for acceptance.

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Step 4: Choosing Which Programs to Apply To

Compiling a Preliminary List of Programs
You should use Graduate Study in Psychology as the main source for choosing graduate programs in psychology. Other helpful sources are Peterson (1993) and Gehlmann et al. (1995). Several APA Divisions have information on training in certain areas of concentration. You may call Division Services to find out if there is training-related material in your area of interest - (202) 336-6013.

A good way to begin to compile a preliminary list of programs is to scan the "Index of Programs by Area of Study Offered" in the back of Graduate Study in Psychology and make a mark next to those programs that offer the area of concentration and type of degree you are seeking.

To analyze your preliminary list of programs you should fill out the PROGRAM WORKSHEET in Appendix B (p. 30), but first make xerox copies of the Program Worksheet.

Your next step will be to estimate the match between the program's admission requirements and your qualifications. Your eventual goal is to identify about 10 programs to which you will apply, with the majority being good matches and some where your qualifications are below the admission requirements (see PROGRAM WORKSHEET). If you are applying to a highly popular area of concentration, such as clinical psychology, you may want to apply to about 12-15 programs, but more than that is not very practical and is not recommended. As of 1993 the minimum cost per application was about $40, so you should try to stay with 10 or so applications.

After you have identified the programs you are interested in, write or call them for application forms and general information about the areas of concentration you are considering (addresses can be found in Graduate Study in Psychology). To make a good impression it is important that you prepare your letters requesting information with care, using formal business letter form, typing neatly, and so forth.

You should also request information about financial aid from the psychology program and the university financial aid office. While waiting for this information you may wish to consult McWade (1993).

You may want to find out about the emotional climate of a program. The best sources for this information are students enrolled in the program, and you should try to contact them, but if this is not feasible you may obtain this information from the American Psychological Association of Graduate Students - (202) 336-6093.

Ideally, you should visit every school to which you will apply. Practically, however, many if not most students cannot afford the time nor the money for such visits. Moreover, it is more important to set aside funds to attend preselection interviews requested by many programs, which may have a direct bearing on whether you are accepted by a program.

Concluding Remarks
Your efforts in following STEP 4 are probably the most time- consuming in the application process. These efforts are often shortchanged by many applicants in their haste to fill out applications and to mail them. But if you are diligent in assessing your qualifications and in selecting programs, you will have an edge over other applicants in several ways. First, you will have the confidence that your decisions were based on a rational process rather than impulse, although, in my opinion, a little impulsivity may not be harmful. Second, you will know well the programs you have selected and why they are a good match for you. Therefore, when you ask for letters of recommendation and begin writing your personal essays, you will be coming from a position of strength. Finally, and perhaps most important, you will be most likely to succeed in the programs that will accept you because they are good matches in terms of philosophy, goals, and the means of achieving your goals.

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Step 5: Applying to Graduate Programs

You should keep a thorough record of everything you send by making xerox copies of all application materials and correspondence. To make sure that your application has been received you can include a self-addressed, stamped postcard with your application materials; the card should read something to the effect of "This card acknowledges that ___________ (insert name of the university and program) has received a completed application packet."

You should type your applications, and have someone else proofread your materials. It is important to be neat and careful since the physical appearance of your materials will influence first impressions. You should double-check every form in the application packet before mailing it. Make xerox copies of the application forms and use them as first drafts. Afterwards you should type the information on the originals.

It takes approximately 6 weeks for both transcripts and standardized test scores to be received by the programs, so make sure to submit your request in time. Most programs will send you acknowledgment of receipt. If you have not received confirmation 6 weeks after ordering transcripts and test scores, feel free to call the program to ask if these materials have been received, unless the program instructs you otherwise.

Preparing a Resume
A resume is not usually required for application. Therefore, if you have little to report, you may skip this step. Otherwise, you should include a resume with your application. There are several reasons for writing a resume: (a) a resume concisely summarizes the most pertinent information about you in an easy-to-read format; (b) people who write letters of recommendation prefer to have a resume to refer to; (c) most programs will appreciated the fact that you were willing to take this extra step.

Your resume should not be longer than two pages, and one page is ideal. Headings should emphasize your experiences that are most pertinent to being a psychology student or future psychologist. These might include career objectives, education, papers presented or published, honors, research experience, teaching experience, clinical experience, psychology-related field experience, professional affiliations, and job experience. You might also include general interests, if you think these would contribute to your being viewed as a well-rounded yet professional individual.

There are a number of publications, workshops, and computer software to assist you in writing a resume. Any format style is acceptable, as long as the resume is easy to read and the effect is professional.

Letters of Recommendation
Once you have chosen potential recommenders you should approach each one in person and ask if he/she would be willing to write a letter of recommendation. Most recommenders need at least three weeks to write and mail a set of letters. You should inform your recommender that you will be providing the following information:

1. The recommendation form and instructions that were supplied by the program's application, on which you have typed your name and indicated whether you waived your right to review the form
2. Your resume with your phone number
3. A copy of your transcript and standardized test scores
4. Stamped envelopes addressed to each program
5. Self-addressed, stamped postcards to be sent to each program requesting notification that the letter of recommendation was received, e.g., "This acknowledges receipt of letter from ___________ to ___________ ."

Writing Application Essays
You should devote considerable time and effort to the application essays. This is because, like letters of recommendation, essays are often used to make final selections of students with similar GPAs and standardized test scores.

The most typical themes requested by programs are: (1) your long- term career plans; (2) your area of interest in academic psychology; and (3) your reasons for choosing the program. However, you should follow the instructions in the application materials. Consequently, be prepared to write different essays for the program applications and they should emphasize the match between yourself and a particular program.

You should start writing application essays as early as possible. Allow sufficient time to brainstorm, write a first draft, revise it, get feedback, revise again, type it, and proofread it carefully.

Filling Out Financial Aid Forms
Many applicants make the mistake of waiting until they are admitted to a program before applying for financial aid. This is a major mistake because the deadline for many financial aid applications is before the deadline for applying to many graduate programs.

Before filling out the forms make xerox copies of them. You will use these copies as first drafts. Afterwards you will type the data or write it legibly in ink on the originals. Many programs require copies of your recent federal tax forms, so make copies of these as soon as possible.

Deadlines are for completed applications, and if you omit a single piece of information you may jeopardize your chances for receiving financial aid.

Financial aid forms and instructions are typically long and bureaucratic, but it is crucial that you read and heed every instruction and fill in every line.

Concluding Remarks
The tasks in STEP 5 are time-consuming and perhaps the most tedious in the application process. You must pay scrupulous attention to every detail every step of the way. It is recommended that you be obsessive in this task, double-checking everything periodically to make sure that you haven't overlooked any minor but perhaps crucial detail.

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Step 6: After You Have Applied

Dealing With Rejection
Consider the worst-case scenario: You are rejected by every school to which you have applied. If you can come to terms with this possibility, you are more likely to await the actual result in relative peace. And if the worst happens you may be very disappointed but not devastated. You may wish to consult Seligman (1991) on how to improve your coping before adverse events occur.

Preparing For Interviews
Many programs require preselection interviews. If you are invited, it is highly recommended that you go, even if you have to borrow the money. If you absolutely cannot attend, find out if the program will consider telephone interviews, and make sure to emphasize that your inability to attend in person is no reflection on your interest in the program. You should prepare yourself thoroughly for the preselection interview by using the following steps:

1. Review the information about the program and faculty.
2. Review your qualifications, interests, and goals.
3. Make note of those that make you a good match with the program
4. Anticipate questions, formulate answers, and rehearse.
5. Don't try to answer a question if you have no answer.
6. Simply state that you have to think about the question before giving an adequate answer
7. Role-play an interview with someone. Ask him/her to mark those questions where you stumbled. If you cannot find someone to role-play, practice saying the answers out loud to yourself. It's important to be articulate when anwering questions
8. Formulate questions to ask faculty. It is detrimental if an applicant comes to an interview without any questions.
9. Don't worry if you are nervous during the interview - that's to be expected. However, the more prepared you are, the less nervous you are likely to be during the interview.
10. Bring a folder with the list of questions you might ask in case you need to jog your memory.

Accepting and Declining Offers
As soon as you have two offers in hand, choose the one that you prefer and decline the other offer. You do not have to immediately accept the preferred offer unless it is actually your first choice. Repeat this procedure with each new offer you receive. That is, hold the preferred choice in reserve and formally decline the less attractive offer. As soon as you receive the offer you want most, accept it and notify immediately the programs from which offers are pending that you are no longer considering their programs.

The proper procedure for accepting or declining offers is to call first, and then write a brief and polite letter. When declining offers, have the courtesy to thank the program for taking the time to consider your application.

When you have made your decision, call or write your recommenders to thank them again and let them know which programs accepted you and where you have decided to go.

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Step 7: Alternatives if You are Not Accepted

To decide which alternative to pursue, you might first ask yourself whether you set your sights too high and applied to programs with very high admission standards. You can test this by systematically reassessing your qualifications against admission requirements. If, in fact, your credentials were very good, it is possible that the competition this year was exceptionally intense. Sometimes the rejection letters will give you some clues to the reasons for the rejection, and you might feel encouraged to try the same or other programs again, after you have addressed the weaknesses implied in the letters of rejection. It is a good idea to talk to one of your professors to help you with your reassessment.

Reapplying for the Same School Year
If you believe in your qualifications and are determined to attend graduate school in the fall, you can send out another round of applications to a new set of programs. One way for selecting programs is to take another look at schools you considered as good bets when you did your program research, but did not send applications to. Contact those programs to find out if they are still accepting applications. You may also wish to contact the APA Education Directorate which compiles a list each spring of programs that have openings after April 15 - write to:

If your application attempts fail, you may want to consider waiting another year to apply.

Reapplying for the Following School Year
There are two things you can do before reapplying: reselect programs and improve your qualifications. In deciding which programs to apply to, first determine whether to reapply to any of the same programs. Programs for which you were chosen as an alternate are attractive possibilities since these programs were obviously interested in you. For programs that rejected you firmly, you should contact them before reapplying to find out if they would be willing to consider you again. You should also apply to some new programs, in which case you will have to do a program research again.

To increase your chances of acceptance the second time around, you should try to improve your credentials. This could include taking or retaking courses, retaking tests, and obtaining some solid research or clinical experience.

Applying to Master's Programs
An option for students who were rejected by doctoral programs is to apply to master's programs in psychology. Master's programs often have less stringent admission requirements than doctoral programs, so you may have a better chance of being accepted. There are several things to keep in mind before you apply to master's programs. One is that a master's degree may not be an adequate credential for the field you are interested in, e.g., to be a clinical psychologist requires a doctoral degree. Second, if your eventual goal is a doctorate, most of your master's credits may not transfer to a doctoral program. Thus, if you are eventually accepted into a doctoral program, you may in effect be starting all over again. Finally, if you really want a doctorate, a master's degree may never satisfy you.

Alternatives to Psychology
A reassessment of your options and qualifications may lead to the conclusion that you are not likely to be accepted by a graduate psychology program. If this is the case, you need not feel that you have wasted your time by majoring in psychology, nor should you abandon hope that your interests in psychology can be satisfied in some other profession. Psychological knowledge can be applied in virtually any occupation, and you will still be able to make good use of your undergraduate training. Many psychology undergraduates have achieved remarkable success as entrepreneurs, writers, teachers, lawyers, artists, and so on.

If you are still interested in pursuing a profession directly related to psychology, there are other graduate degrees that will get you where you want to go. For example, if you are interested in clinical psychology you may consider social work programs with a specialization in mental health or clinical social work. Many education departments also offer degrees in counseling, and marriage and family therapy.

If you are interested in organizational psychology you might consider graduate programs in business schools that emphasize organizational development. If you are interested in group behavior you might consider a graduate degree in sociology.

Concluding Remarks
If you follow the steps outlined in this paper you will enhance your chances of being accepted to a graduate program in psychology, but, of course, there are no guarantees since the average applicant-to-opening ratios are 25-to-1 or higher. For those of you who will be admitted, congratulations. The Psychology Department wishes you the best as you enter the community of psychology scholars.

Many of you who worked hard on your applications and who have the potential to become competent psychologists will not be admitted largely because of the limited number of training slots, and that is disheartening. However, those same qualities that may have made you a competent psychologist will serve you well in whichever other path you choose. Keep in mind that psychology is only one house in the community of professions and vocations.

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References

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Graduate Record Exam (GRE)

• GRE Registration & Information Bulletin (updated yearly)
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  P.O. Box 6000
  Princeton, NJ 08541

  (For computerized testing on short notice, call (800) 967-1100)
  

• Educational Testing Service. (1994). Practicing to take the GRE Psychology Test. (3rd ed.). Princeton, NJ: Author.
• Katzman, J. (1994). The Princeton Review: Cracking the GRE. New York: Random House.
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• Tarlow, D.M. (1993). Graduate Record Exam (GRE): Student guide. St. Louis, MO: Datar.

Miller Analogies Test (MAT)

• Bulletin of Information and List of Testing Centers with 60 Practice Items for the MAT. (updated yearly)

  The Psychological Corporation

  555 Academic Court

  San Antonio, TX 78204

  
  
• Bader, W., Burt, D.S., & Steinberg, E.P. (1991). MAT: Miller Analogies Test (4th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
• Rudman, J. (1991). Miller Analogies Test (MAT). Syosset, NY: National Learning Corporation.
• Sternberg, R.J. (1989). Barron's how to prepare for the Miller Analogies Test - MAT (5th ed.). Hauppauge, NY: Barron's Educational Series.

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